People’s lives are intertwined with the health of oceans and coral reefs.

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1. Protecting corals is good for people and other special places.
   • Coral reefs protect coastal areas from waves
   • About 197 million people live in areas where coral reefs offer protection from waves battering the coast
   • Costs for coral reef restoration are less than building protective sea walls
   • Healthy coral reefs can regenerate themselves over time.
2. Healthy reef ecosystems provide protein for hundreds of millions of people

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Coral reefs are threatened by human activity in three main ways.

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1. Climate Change & Ocean Acidification
   • Reefs are threatened by global warming.
   • The mechanism works like this. First, humanity has designed systems that rely on burning fossil fuels including coal, oil and natural gas. We burn fuels for transportation, for manufacturing, for heating and cooling buildings, for agriculture and more. The burning process releases carbon dioxide which is mixed into the atmosphere. The carbon dioxide acts like a blanket around Earth, trapping in heat. Most of the heat -- about 90% -- is in the world ocean. Warmer water means corals are more likely to experience temperatures that are too hot, leading to more coral bleaching. That weakens corals and can kill them if it goes on for too long.
   • Reefs are threatened by ocean acidification
   • Ocean acidification works like this. First, we live with systems that rely on burning fossil fuels, including coal, oil and natural gas. For example, agriculture, commerce and transportation all rely on burning fuels. Burning releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. About a quarter of all the carbon dioxide released each year is mixed into the ocean. Once in the ocean, carbon dioxide changes the chemistry and makes the ocean slightly more acidic (slightly less basic). That change makes it harder for corals to build their skeletons. That makes it harder for corals to grow.
   • "Coral Reefs and Ocean Acidification" by Kleypas and Yates
2. Plastics
   • Plastics can harm corals
   • Plastics such as plastic bags can be snagged on corals and rub against them, damaging the coral tissues.
   • Plastic Pollution Is Killing Coral Reefs, 4-Year Study Finds
   • Plastics can increase the risk of coral disease.
   • Plastics such as plastic bags can be snagged on corals and rub against them, damaging the coral tissues.
   • microplastics can be eaten (ingested) by corals
   • microplastics can be eaten (ingested) by corals
3. Pollution
   1. Siltation
      • siltation and eutrophication
      • Terrestrial pollutant runoff to the Great Barrier Reef: An update of issues, priorities and management responses.
      • An assessment of residence times of land-sourced contaminants in the Great Barrier Reef lagoon and the implications for management and reef recovery
   2. Eutrophication
      • General article from Reef Resilience Network
      • "Nutrient pollution disrupts key ecosystem functions on coral reefs"
      • "Nutrient pollution disrupts key ecosystem functions on coral reefs"
      • Megan Donahue, researcher at HIMB. "Our data indicate that both local management efforts such as reducing nutrient run-off and seepage into groundwater, and global actions, such as reducing global carbon dioxide emissions, are required to protect reefs from rapidly declining."

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Individual action is needed and possible from everybody, not only those who live close to the reefs.

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1. Many individuals & organizations are already working hard to protect coral reefs.
   • Belize taking steps to protect its reefs from damaging activities
   • Individuals are forming groups like People4Ocean
   • P4O People for Ocean works in two primary ways to support coral reefs. First - they develop and market non-toxic sunscreen products. Second - they grow corals.
   • Women Working for Oceans (W2O) is helping local people to get involved
   • Many organizations apply for grants, each year, to support coral reef health through research and conservation efforts.
   • Collaboration among Navy divers and coral reef experts can help identify where to intervene in reef areas
2. Plastics
   • Around the world, people are working to reduce and eliminate plastic waste.
   • Tracking efforts to ban plastic bags, worldwide
   • In Massachusetts, in the US, more than 80 communities have already voted to adopt plastic bag bans. This site includes comments about the variety of choices different cities and town are making.
   • There is evidence that policies can help reduce plastic waste in the ocean
   • Many countries and manufacturers are taking steps to eliminate the use of plastic microbeads.
   • The US adopted the "Microbead Free Waters Act" in 2015
3. Siltation and Nutrient Pollution
   • At Culebra, in Puerto Rico - Local people are working to reduce nutrient and silt runoff into reef areas
4. Global Warming and Ocean Acidification
   • Individuals and groups are taking legal action to push their own governments to take action to slow global warming - one of the major threats to coral reefs.
   • A group of 21 children are taking the US government to court to help create changes to protect the climate
   • A group of 21 children are taking the US government to court to help create changes to protect the climate

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Restoration of coral reefs is possible by working collaboratively.

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1. Traditional knowledge and practices can help protect coral reef ecosystems
2. "Traditional community-run marine reserves and fisheries can play a big role in helping to restore and maintain fish numbers in stressed developing nations' coral reef fisheries."
3. Marine reserve areas can help

1. Cultivating corals and reintroducing them can help
2. Some corals defy the odds. We can learn from them.
3. Two creative approaches that could help protect reefs
4. Cultivating heat-resistent corals
   • First, find heat-tolerant corals
   • John Burt's lab from NYU, in Abu Dabi
   • Researchers studying heat-resistant corals from the Gulf of Aqaba
   • breeding heat-resistant corals (Gates Lab)
   • Freemanet. al used models to predict that Indian Ocean corals may be the best to examine for strains equipped for stresses that are coming in the future
5. Manage for reef health
   • Preparing to manage coral reefs for ocean acidification: Lessons from coral bleaching. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 11: 20-27.
   • The Honolulu Declaration of 2008 "identified two major strategies that must be implemented urgently and concurrently to mitigate the impacts of climate change and to safeguard the value of coral reef systems: 1) limit fossil fuel emissions; 2) build the resilience of tropical marine ecosystems and communities to maximize their ability to resist and recover from climate change impacts. Despite the dire predictions, there is hope for coral reefs if action is swift."

1. Coral reefs can recover when given a break from stressors
2. "responses to elevated pCO2 are species-specific and that the stability and flexibility of microbial partnerships may have an important role in shaping and contributing to the fitness and success of some hosts"
3. CO2 Seeps - natural experiments
4. CO2 Seeps - natural experiments

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Coral reefs are vital ecosystems and they represent a rich contribution to the planet’s biodiversity.

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Corals are amazing!

1. Provide habitat for diverse species
2. Protect coastal areas from storm surge and large waves
   • recent meta-analysis found that reefs break about 97% of incoming wave energy and reduce wave height by 84% (Ferrario, et al. 2014).
   • "As living structures, reefs have the potential for self-repair and thus lower maintenance costs as compared with artificial structures"
3. Coral reefs can be the source of new materials and chemicals for human medicine
   • Improving bone growth
   • "Dozens of promising products from marine organisms are being advanced, including a cancer therapy made from algae and a painkiller taken from the venom in cone snails. The antiviral drugs Ara-A and AZT and the anticancer agent Ara-C, developed from extracts of sponges found on a Caribbean reef, were among the earliest modern medicines obtained from coral reefs. Other products, such as Dolostatin 10, isolated from a sea hare found in the Indian Ocean, are under clinical trials for use in the treatment of breast and liver cancers, tumors, and leukemia."

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Additional General Resources

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1. National Geographic
2. National Geographic video "Corals 101"
3. The International Society for Reef Studies
4. GRID-Arendal, based in Norway
5. Chasing Coral
6. Coral reefs are vulnerable to climate change and global warming. But until global greenhouse gas levels actually start falling, it will be difficult to protect coral reefs over the longer term. ’Drawdown’ is the point in time when the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere starts to decline on a year-to-year basis. TSL has developed an online game called the ‘Drawdown Challenge’, working in partnership with Project Drawdown, which identified 100 climate change solutions and ranked them based on their potential to reduce greenhouse gases. Due to the enormous scale of the challenge, all of the solutions should be implemented as no single solution will be enough to save our precious coral reefs. Can you guess which solutions will have the most impact?

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